DECLARATION ……………………………………………………………………………………………..ii

ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………………………………………….. iii

DEDICATION………………………………………………………………………………………………..iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……………………………………………………………………………….v

GLOSSARY …………………………………………………………………………………………………..vi

TIMELINE………………………………………………………………………………………………….. viii

CONTENTS……………………………………………………………………………………………………xi

INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………………………………………………………1

CHAPTER I – A Critical Realist Approach to the study of nationalism…………………..7

1. Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………7
2. The nationalism debate……………………………………………………………….8
3. Theoretical understandings of nationalism ………………………………….10
4. The ethno-symbolist understanding of nationalism ………………………18
5. Nationalism across a morphogenetic cycle ………………………………….30
6. Aims and objectives…………………………………………………………………35
7. Methodology …………………………………………………………………………..36

CHAPTER II: The History of Kurdish nationalism …………………………………………….39

1. Introduction …………………………………………………………………………….39
2. The origins of the Kurdish nation and Kurdish nationalism…………..40
3. The Ottoman Period …………………………………………………………………45
4. The foundation of Iraq………………………………………………………………51
5. The fall of the Monarchy and the Kurdish Liberation movement……57
6. The 1963 rise of the Ba’ath Party into power ………………………………59
7. The 1968 Ba’athist return to power and the end of the Kurdish national movement………..63
8. The resurgence of the movement and the Anfal Campaign……………70
9. The March 1991 uprisings and the Ba’athist withdrawal ………………75
10. The establishment of an autonomous region………………………………..77
11. Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………81

CHAPTER III: Kurdish ethnic nationalism in Iraq ……………………………………………..84

1. Introduction …………………………………………………………………………….84
2. The academic debate on ethnic nationalism…………………………………86
3. Kurdish ethnic nationalism………………………………………………………..93
4. The myth of common ancestry and shared historical memories……..95
5. A collective proper name, an association with a specific homeland and differentiating elements of a common culture …………………………………….101

6. A sense of solidarity within the population………………………………..107
7. Interpreting the survival of Kurdish ethnic nationalism……………….109
8. Kurdish ethnic nationalism as a response to the Iraqi official national narrative ………………………………………………………………………………………..112

9. A clash between distinct projects……………………………………………..121
10. Kurdishness in relation to political power and tribalism………………125
11. Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………….128

CHAPTER IV: Kurdish civic nationalism in Iraq ……………………………………………..130

1. Introduction …………………………………………………………………………..130
2. The distinct context of Iraqi Kurdish nationalism……………………….132
3. The conscious choice of participating in the nation…………………….136
4. The role of citizenship and institutions……………………………………..138
5. The formation of a community of equal rights and shared political practices………………………………………………………………………………………..140

6. The process of construction of an inclusive democratic mentality ..143
7. A clash between the Kurdish civic and ethnic identities………………150
8. The conscious effort of political elites to construct a civic nation through a pragmatist nationalist agenda …………………………………………….155

9. The elements of a new structure of national identification …………..159
10. Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………….165

CHAPTER V – The Kurdish nationalist project in Iraq ……………………………………..168

1. Introduction …………………………………………………………………………..168
2. The 2003 emergence of a new contextual status…………………………168
3. Iraqi Kurdistan’s political trajectory after 2003………………………….170
4. Iraqi Kurdistan’s economic trajectory after 2003 ……………………….176
5. Iraqi Kurdistan’s ideological trajectory after 2003 ……………………..180
6. Inter-Kurdish rivalry ………………………………………………………………183
7. Intra-Kurdish rivalry ………………………………………………………………190
8. The problematic nature of the state-building process ………………….193
9. The 2017 independence referendum: a national or party decision?.200
10. Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………….209

CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………………………………………….211

1. Structure of the thesis……………………………………………………………..212
2. Research Questions………………………………………………………………..215
3. Claims to originality and academic contribution ………………………..217
4. Limitations and basis for future research …………………………………..219

BIBLIOGRAPHY…………………………………………………………………………………………222

APPENDICES ……………………………………………………………………………………………..257

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